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History of Architecture VI
The last volume of the History of Architecture. We end with one final look at Modernism and where we are as a culture today, architecturally speaking.
With respect to Modernism, one of Louis Sullivan’s other most significant contribution is not his development of the skyscraper model, but his ideas about ornament and its place in architecture. He adored architectural ornament and incorporated it consistently in his buildings. But he also realized the unnecessary nature of ornament. In his book, Ornament in Architecture, 1892, Sullivan writes
“I say that it would be greatly for our [a]esthetic good if we should refrain entirely from the use of ornament for a period of years, in order that our thought might concentrate acutely upon the production of buildings well formed and comely in the nude”
Adolf Loos, a young Austrian architect, discovered the writings of Sullivan while visiting the U.S. in the late 19th century. The pages inspired him. It was what he considered to be a clear disdain for ornament in architecture. This conclusion was completely at odds with the architectural climate of Austria at the time which was extremely decorative. Loos returned to his home country and began an all out assault on the inclusion of decoration and ornament in architecture. Whereas Sullivan saw decor as a required luxury, Loos considered it to an unnecessary crime. In his own architecture, Loos produced buildings of very simple cubical forms, completely unadorned. No emblems, elaborate cornices, window trim, curves, or paintings - no bells or whistles. Nothing was present that did not serve a functional purpose. Consequently, this type of over-simplification of design proved ideal from a mechanical and efficiency standpoint. I consider Adolf Loos to be the first Modernist architect. That is debatable for sure. But what we see in Loos’ designs are the arrival of a completely new architecture that represents the changing social and political climates of Europe; amd architecture that by looking away from the status quo. This cultural filtering and mechanization of architecture would set the stage for the 20th century and become the billboard of socialist architecture.
The simplification and machining of architecture continued across the European continent, adding signature traits along the way. Le Corbusier (Corb), added more overtones of mass production to the mix with his Dom-ino House project. It was designed in response to WWI. The common thought was that once fighting was done large portions of cities would have to be rebuilt on an unprecedented scale. Responding to this thinking, Corb designed the Dom-ino House to be mass produced in factories and quickly constructed. This was achieved by first separating building structure from building enclosure and then reducing a building into its essential parts: floor and roof slabs, vertical columns (pilotis), and a stair. The separation of structural and enclosure parts allowed the freedom to place exterior and interior walls as so desired. Floors plan were completely flexible and material choices could reflect regional trends. Architecture could operate much the way an automobile does, as a system of prefabricated parts. In fact, it was Corb who first coined the term “architecture as machine”. The principles Corb developed in Dom-ino House would shape much of his early work. His ideas on mass-production for mass populations would make him a pioneer in Modern Architecture but also the architecture of public housing. Corb’s Unite d’Habitation housing project in Marseille, France is by far one of his most famous buildings. It embodies his later ideals of “object in the park” urban planning with the repetition of living flexible living spaces. “A vertical city” as he would call it. Buildings like these were heavily attractive to socialist regimes and would eventually shape public housing policy in the United States.
Walter Gropius added the flat roof, long ribbon windows and the curtain wall to the the equation. Gropius, desired to create an architecture indicative of the new industrial world. His first commissions were factory buildings where he used rectangular forms capped with a flat roof, still a scarcity at the time. The exterior of these buildings had long horizontal glass windows with very slender steel mullion profiles. He used steel because he wanted to show its many applications in construction. The Fagus Shoe Factory project in Liene, Germany shows these architectural inventions well. Groupis, set the standard for designing industrial buildings, but his work was quickly adapted by modernist architects in other building types like schools and houses, something Groupis did not necessarily intend to happen. Nonetheless, the precedent was set for the “glass box” building and the rampant use of the curtain wall. A curtain wall is simply a self-supporting wall system separated from the main structure of the building. If the curtainwall fails, the building will still stand. The building he designed for the school he began, the Bauhaus in Dessau, Germany, encompasses all his modernist contributions. Unfortunately, the Nazis shut down the Bauhaus in 1932 because it was claimed to have represented communism.
Mies van der Rohe added the final push to help catapult modernism to the global arena and the forefront of architectural design. Mies combined the open spatial organization of Wright, with the minimalism of Loos’ and Corb, producing his own design interpretation. The result is a very simple and open sequence of internal spaces surrounded by glass, best seen in his Barcelona Pavilion in Barcelona and his Farnsworth house in Plano, Illinois. But Van der Rohe’s most significant contribution to architecture would be his role in the development of the International Style and the perfection of the “glass box” skyscraper. The International Style came out of the Weissenhof housing exhibition in Stuttgart, Germany, where local officials wanted to display the latest ideas in multi-family housing design in hopes of mass producing them. Mies van der Rohe was assigned to lead the charge and he invited sixteen leading architects from around Europe to participate. Mies developed the masterplan, divided the lots and gave each architect a plot to design and showcase their ideas. Each building was unique to its individual designer. But the common characteristics these architects displayed in their buildings would serve as the canonical law of Modern Architecture: Flat roofs and terraces, open floor plans, all white exteriors, long horizontal bands of windows, glass curtain walls, no window trim, no cornice embellishments, and simple cubical forms with clean straight lines. As Corb had intended years earlier, each building component was to be factory produced and capable of being constructed quickly, supporting the machine metaphor. These core principles would influence residential design across the globe - private and public - truly becoming the International Style.
Mies would use the ideas developed during the International Style Housing Exhibition and apply them to the American skycraper building type. In his interpretation of the tower, the ground floor was lined on all sides by columns, or pilotis as Corbusier called them. The enclosed spaces at this level were offset from the building edge and completely enclosed in glass. The remainder the tower was raised above the double height ground floor, as if it was floating above the ground and enclosed in steel and glass as well. Uncoincidentally, Mies’ towers follow the three part diagram - Base, Shaft, and Capital - that Louis Sullivan developed decades before. The core principles of modernism were successfully transferred to the tall building type and would be the standard for tower design in America, even still.
Modernism was the by product of political, social and technological changes all happening at the same time. The sentiment of modernist architecture was admirable. However, it’s worth noting that the consequences of modernist urban planning have been detrimental to the urban city, particularly the American city. During the 1970’s and 60’s, architectural movements would rise in opposition to the banality of modernism. Postmodernism,or Po-Mo, would reintroduce visual cultural meaning to architecture through vernacular forms of the classical and Renaissance periods as well as subtle ornamentation and articulation of materials. Michael Graves and Aldo Rossi are two architects that represent Po-Mo design well. More recently, computers and computational simulation software has sparked an even newer architectural thought. Contemporary architecture is now able to take on many different shapes and forms because of this technology and architects have used it to push their artistic explorations and experiments with the built environment. Of notable influence in this school of thought are architects Frank Gehry and Zaha Hadid. That brings us to what’s next. We are well into the 21st century and we have already witnessed the next great cultural revolution, artificial intelligence. Architects once again are exploring the effects of this new revolution on buildings and the cities we inhabit.
The influence modernism has had on the world is well-accomplished - good or bad. Architecturally, modernism has taught us many things. But more than anything, it is a prime example of the intrinsic relationship between human cultural development and the creation of architecture. It is a marriage that has existed since the Agriculturally Revolution. No doubt it will continue for centuries to come. More of a grave uncertainty is the role that architects will play in this future. Over the last 100-150 years, advances in society have helped strip the architect of critical responsibilities. For example, the standardization and mass-production of parts ‘liberated’ the architect from having to design so many essential building components and systems. Instead of inventing, now all the architect had to do was choose from a selection of pre-made parts and accommodate for it. This is not necessarily a bad thing, but at most an issue of concern. In theory, standardization allows for more time to be dedicated the overall artistic expression of the building. But as I’ve mentioned before the role of the architect goes far beyond matters of visual beauty. I think if architects are going to find their place in the 21st century, both they and the rest of society must acknowledge the roles and skills of the architectural OG’s from the 15th Century and beyond. “To know where ya' going/you gotta know where ya' been”
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History of Architecture V. - Neo-Revivals/Pre-Modernism
Modernism was a unique occurrence and a culmination of many colliding forces happening at once. We have come to know the term “Modern” as something very “clean” looking. Although this was part of the intent, the spirit behind the modernist movement was much more convoluted than opening up floor plans and adding clean lined finishes. It was fueled by social and technological revolutions, that defined the 18th and 19th centuries and culminated into a complete set of ideals in the mid 20th century.
“I have therefore evolved the following maxim, and pronounce it to the world: the evolution of culture marches with the elimination of ornament from useful objects
”
Modernism was a unique occurrence and a culmination of many colliding forces happening at once. We have come to know the term “Modern” as something very “clean” looking. Although this was part of the intent, the spirit behind the modernist movement was much more convoluted than opening up floor plans and adding clean lined finishes. It was fuelled by social and technological revolutions, that defined the 18th and 19th centuries and culminated into a complete set of ideals in the mid 20th century. Socially, people the world over organized themselves to “fight the power’s that be”. Unlike the reformation versus counter-reformation dispute of the 17th century, Modernism was a response to despotic monarchical rule rather than religion specifically, and it fueled the creation of socialist thought.Technologically, the 18th century Industrial Revolution produced a palette of vanguard materials for architects to design their buildings with: Wrought Iron, Structural Steel, and Reinforced Concrete.
Delacroix's painting from 1830, 'Liberty Leading the People', depicts the moment when French revolutionaries defeated King Charles the X of France. Revolutions were happening all over the world. As people began freeing themselves socially from monarchs and oligarchies, they also began freeing themselves artistically and architecturally by opposing established institutions and the images they represented.
The two centuries that led up to the birth of modernism in the 20th century gave the world the capacity and means to liberate themselves from both social and physical restrictions. It reflects the turmoil, confusion, and experimentation of societies around the globe. As the world social order began to reinterpret itself, architects too would be freed to create a new kind of architecture indicative of the times.
In the 21st century Modernism can be hard to define. Some use the word to mean anything not “classical”. Some use it to define anything designed from the 1950’s onward. Some specifically use it to describe the kinds of finishes used in a space. Popular culture has attached many interpretations that incorrectly define the Modernist Movement. At its core, Modernism is an extreme over-simplification of mass, surface and space. Forms were dwindled down to basic platonic shapes like squares and rectangles. All ornament was eventually removed. Architecture became a utility object only including its essential functioning parts. It became a “machine”, an adjective used during the 30’s as a metaphor for high-modern design. Modernist practitioners thought all ornament was superfluous and that any articulation not serving a building function was therefore not needed. Why? The ornament and articulation on buildings was often associated with politics statements, religious dogma, and other forms of cultural propaganda. These were the constructs people were not trying to eliminate but, to free themselves from. Modernist design was the physical manifestation of that. It was intended to be a liberating architecture. An architecture of the people. A socialist architecture. This removal of cultural propaganda and institutional grandeur was a slow process and there were many sub-styles developed before the high-modernist plateau in the 1930’s.
The Industrial Revolution produced wrought iron, steel, and reinforced concrete and completely “changed the game”. Buildings could get taller, contain more windows, and use less material because of the strength of these new components. The first structures to use these materials were monuments and public works like the Eiffel Tower in Paris and Brooklyn Bridge in NYC. But they were quickly adapted for use in buildings. Exterior building facades became thinner and structural support transitioned to steel framing instead of the traditional masonry bearing wall. Along with the perfection of the elevator, these materials produced structurally expressive spaces like Henri Labrouste’s National Library in Paris and the Wainwright Building from Louis Sullivan in Chicago, IL - the birthplace of the skyscraper building type. This moment in building science also marks the rise of the speciality engineer as the disciplines of civil and structural engineering were extracted from the direct responsibilities of the architect.
For centuries architecture had been the billboards of the social order to the governed, impressing upon the masses which ideals to fear, what to believe, and what was “truth.” Now more than ever was the opportunity to change that. In the late 19th century the world is influx, war is on the horizon and everything is up for debate and questioning, even architecture. There were those that stayed within the confines of classicism. But there were many who wanted to explore what architecture could be in this new age. Architects began playing with the possibilities and Art Nouveau was a style born out of this playfulness. Popular in France, Italy, Spain and Germany architects in this design philosophy departed from classical and Victorian principles, and pulled inspiration from the expressive Gothic and Baroque styles. Yet, Art Nouveau exceeds even the most organic gothic or baroque building. Art Nouveau encouraged free-flowing forms and curves that were based on plants and things found in nature, having the freedom to change direction and size at the discretion of the designer. The inventions of steel and concrete allowed this to happen, as a building's structural integrity became an artistic expression rather than something hidden from view. The subway stop canopies of the Paris Metro - designed by French Architect Hector Guimard - show off the traits of Art Nouveau with their slender iron profiles and apparent lightness. Catalan Architect Antonio Gaudi was a master of expressive natural forms both structurally and architecturally. His design for the Basilica de la Sagrada de Familia and Casa Mila in Barcelona are two of his most well known works in the Art Nouveau tradition.
Considered H.H. Richardson's finest architectural achievement, Trinity Church in Boston is an American treasure. There is a playfulness with how he moves through several historical styles in a search to find his own.
Crane Library in Boston has many of Richardson's signature moves like the arch entryway, the asymmetrical tower, the massiveness of stone, and the thickness of walls. His early contribution to modern architecture is portrayed in the grouped windows on the left. They almost form one long horizontal opening. This would be further developed in the coming century.
American architect Henry Hobson Richardson experimented with Romanesque architecture by exaggerating the sizes of the arch form and combining it with other voids and solids in very asymmetrical ways. He played with close groupings of horizontal windows, precursors to the elongated windows found in later modernist works. He relied on thick masonry walls to show the permanence of his architecture. His designs were so unique at the time that he was given his own style, Richardson Romanesque. Trinity Church in Boston is probably his most well known work. At the same time American architect, Frank Lloyd Wright is making his own re-interpretations of architecture. The American single family house at the time was based on the European tradition of having many separate rooms closed off from each other by walls. Wright explodes this idea and reconfigures the house as a free-flowing sequence of spaces centered around a focal point (usually a hearth). I suppose we can call him the grandfather of HGTV’s “open concept term”. Instead of keeping the house contained in a tightly “packed box”, Wright spaced the rooms of the home individual across the property. His buildings tended to be elongated, low to the earth, horizontal and free of obstructions in floor plan. These are the components of his signature Prairie Style. He was also a pioneer in the use of reinforced concrete in architecture. The majority of Wright’s work can be seen in the suburbs of Chicago. However, his Magnum Opus, the building that embodies all of his ideas is Fallingwater, a private house located just outside of Pittsburgh.
Considered Frank Lloyd Wright's masterpiece, Fallingwater is a triumph of modernism in both form and material innovation.
Key to Wright's space-planning and a primary trait to Modernist Architecture was the open plan building. Through the use of Poured in Place Concrete Wright was able to create a floor plan un-obstructed by interior columns like that of the Japanese Houses he admired.
A few decades before, Wright’s first employer and mentor - Louis Sullivan - and his business partner Dankmar Adler, were working though another architectural experimentation, the skyscraper. Steel allowed buildings to be built higher and use less material. Tall buildings of these heights had never been built before in this manner in human history and there was no precedent for how they should look. Sullivan created one, separating the building into three parts influenced by the classical column: The Base, the first two floors which contained stores and shops easily accessed from the street; The Shaft or middle, repetitive floors for offices and individual tenants; and the Capital or Top, where mechanical and other machinery would be located. You can also make the argument that this structure mimicked the three part Palazzi developed in the Italian Renaissance. Regardless, this diagram would serve as the model for designing tall buildings for decades. His Wainwright Building in Chicago and the Guaranty Building in Buffalo are great examples of his skyscraper diagram.
Three Parts of a Classical Order
Three Layers of the Italian Palazzo
Three Layers of the First Skyscrapers
For What, Are We Designing Cities For?
Time is not Money. Time is greater than money. We can create money. But time we have a finite amount of and how we spend our time says much about the quality of life we live. In this lecture we dive into how city architecture and the built environment manipulate people into spending their time for better or for worse.
““For what’s money without happiness?/Or hard times without the people you love?/...”
In February of 2018, I (Marques King) was given the great honor and opportunity to deliver a lecture at my graduate school alma mater. the University of Maryland College of Architecture, Planning & Preservation. I knew I wanted to talk about my thoughts on the nature of the city as a whole - it had been my training up until that point. But from what angle? I am often riffing about human being able to spend their time on this planet in better ways. But that is often at odds with what most of us consider to be the most important commodity: Money.
I am of the belief (and will argue with anyone until I am blue in the face) that Time is Not Money. Time is greater than money. We can create money. We can also destroy it. It can lose value and it can gain value. It is subjective. It is malleable. But time we can not create, neither can we destroy it. It is objective. It is only given, and given in a finite amount. How we spend our time says much about the quality of life that each of us live. In this lecture I use time rather than money as an evaluative measure of a human life. Together we dive into how city architecture and the built environment manipulate people into spending their time, for better or for worse.
This is constantly and continually being refined.
Statues in Social Context
Apart from the Mary Macleod Bethune statue erected in 1974,…there was no true monument dedicated to a prominent black individual until Martin Luther King Jr. finally got [his] in 2011 (43 years after his death!). Even though MLK gained his seat at the table with Lincoln and Jefferson on the National Mall, one could still argue that his statue is positioned in such a way that does not command public space, but is rather a “destination” that one must seek out.
In 2018, Fabric[K] Design principal Marques King sat down with fellow designers and educators, Ken Filler and Austin Raimond, for a recording of “The Table Session” Podcast. The episode explores the layers of a touchy socio-political topic - civic statues - specifically in the context of the America Capital of Washington, D.C. What’s interesting is the commentary on how statues and who they memorialize, influence the creation of quality public space and who subliminally has access to it. Here’s an excerpt from the episode’s abstract…
“Out of the 150 “statues” or “monuments” surveyed in Washington DC for this study, almost 100 are of prominent white men. Apart from the Mary Macleod Bethune statue erected in 1974, which could be classified as a true anomaly in this analysis’ spectrum, there was no true monument dedicated to a prominent black individual until Martin Luther King Jr. finally got his long overdue memorial in 2011 (43 years after his death!). Even though MLK gained his seat at the table with Lincoln and Jefferson on the National Mall, one could still argue that his statue is positioned in such a way that does not command public space, but is rather a “destination” that one must seek out...
...Since 1876 (12 years after his death), Major General McPherson (McPherson Square) has projected an image of strength and heritage; an image that commands one of the largest public nodes of the nation’s capital. A cornerstone of Washington’s urban identity, he and other union generals organize the entire urban fabric of downtown. On the contrary, only during the Obama presidency, were statues of black men erected in Washington DC. Carter G. Woodson, received his commemorative monument in 2014 (65 years after his death) in a triangle in a historically black neighborhood.”
A self surveyed map of 150 statues and monuments in Washington, D.C.. It is worth noting that most Persons of Color living in the city do so primairly in the ‘deep’ Northwest & Southwest quadrants - where there are viturally no monuments and lack-luster public spaces. Image composed by Ken Filler & Austin Raimond from’The Table Session’ Podcast.
CHECK OUT THIS FULL PODCAST EPISODE ON “STATUES in SOCIAL CONTEXT” AND OTHER GREAT DISCUSSIONS AT “THE TABLE SESSIONS” PODCAST BY CLICKING HERE
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History of Architecture IV. - Indian & Meso-American Civilizations
A visual history of Indian, Native American, and Meso-American architecture and civilization.
Indian/Buddhist Civilizations
Early Indian cultures originated in a region that is now modern day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Northern India. They too, along with Arab nations, were great mathematical cultures furthered heightened by the Eastern expansion of Islam. But before Islam, the societies on the Indian subcontinent followed the religious teachings of Hindu, Buddhism, and Jainism and this commitment was expressed in its architecture. Early buildings were constructed by carving out spaces into nearby cliffs and mountains. These were more for ceremonial and burial purposes than anything else. The architecture of Indian temples and palaces soon developed into free-standing buildings that mimicked nature or mounds of Earth. Their most significant architectural invention was the Stupa. An Indian version of the Egyptian Mastaba or the Mesopotamian Ziggurat, the Stupa is a rounded shrine building directly tied to Buddhist teachings. The first Stupas were simple piles of rubble stacked over the remains of the cremated, essentially a burial ground or tomb. Buddha himself was said to have been buried under a primitive stupa and marks the beginning of the structure’s use as a shrine. These early shrines served as the genesis for a new architecture centered around the teachings of Buddha. Stupas are still essential components of the Buddhist tradition, procession, and belief but have become more elaborate and have spread over the entire Asian continent alongside the teachings of Buddhism.
Meso-American/Native American Civilizations
The Ancient Incan ruin city of Machu Picchu, located in modern day Peru. It placed elegantly on top of a hill and till this day it is unknown what this building complex was used for.
Meso American civilizations transitioned from a hunter-gather culture to permanent agricultural villages around 7000 BC. The farming of cacao, corn, tomato, squash and the domestication of turkeys and dogs, enabled these civilizations to flourish and prosper. Chief among these meso-american cultures were the Olmec, Mayan, Aztec, and Incan Empires. These cultures were just as sophisticated as their counterparts in Europe and the Middle East. They developed complex mythological and religious systems based on the celestial bodies and stars, an intricate hieroglyphic writing system, detailed timekeeping systems, developed the concept of zero in mathematics, were fervent astronomers, and were also master builders. All of these cultural developments influenced the design, location and layout of their cities and the creation of their architecture. The architecture of these early Indigenous American tribes was guided in every way by mythology and astrology. Beginning as simple mounds of earth, they built pyramids similar to those of Egypt and Mesopotamia and would place temples at the top instead of within.
More important was the placement of buildings within the cities. Pyramids, temples, and palaces of Mayan and Aztec cultures were located on land based on certain calendar events which would provide wonderful effects of light and shadow on the architecture. In fact most Mayan buildings of worship face 15 degrees East of North so as to align with the sunset on August 13, the beginning of the Mayan Calendar. No doubt this coincided with some sort of ritual. Moreover what this shows is an intimate relationship between humans, their cultural interpretations, and architecture. Thankfully, a great deal of these ancient structures are still standing and retain the same relationships to the sun and moon as they did before. The most notable of these are the Mayan temple El Castillo, Aztex Capital Tenochtitlan (Mexico City), and the Mayan city of Tikal.
Indigenous peoples also populated the present day United States and Canada before European intrusion. Some of the oldest tribes like Inuit, Navajo, Apache, and the Ottawa were spread across the North American continent. Although very low-tech compared to other developing civilizations in the world, the culture of these natives was just as complex and rich. These tribes were tremendous weavers and makers of pottery which satisfied a variety of daily life needs. They were also great agriculturalists becoming the first civilizations to domesticate corn, squash, and beans. They used the cultivation of food to form their own village societies. Their religious belief system, like so many ancient cultures, was based on a reverence for agricultural harvests and exploring human relationships with nature. Ceremonies included public prayers, dancing, drumming, and singing often accompanied by a colorful prayer stick (or rain stick) that made a very calming sound.
Ancient Mayan City of Tikal, located in present day Guatemala.
Olmec Head, a common feature in Mayan Cities like Tikal.
The most notable tribes of architectural significance would have to be the Mississippian and Puebloan natives. Mississippian tribes were located around the Mississippi River and its many tributaries. They were known for their mound building construction of ceremonial temples, which can be found distributed all over the American Midwest and Southeast. These mounds of earth are similar to the ziggurats and mastabas of Mesopotamia and Egypt. But like the Mayans and Aztecs, these mounds were used as platforms for temples and houses rather than chambers themselves. In some cases the mounds were designed to mimic certain animals. The villages that had the most mounds were considered to be larger, more powerful communities and had influence over smaller villages around them. Prominent examples of Mississippian earth mounds are the Cahokia Mounds located outside of St.Louis, Mo and the Serpent Mound located in Adams County Ohio.
Mississippian Native Tribes built mound structures just like their contemporaries to the south. But, instead of stone, these indiginous peeople built their temples, shrines and cities out of the earth itself. This artist's image is of Cahokia, the largest settlement of the Mississippian people. It was located along the Mississippi River in what is now St. Louis.
Puebloan people also built with earth, or rather, carved into it. Pueblo tribes are native to the Northern Mexico and Southern U.S. regions that have very arid climates. Responding to this local condition, the Pueblo tribes constructed villages comprised of thick-walled adobe mud brick apartment buildings stacked right next to and on top of each other There were no streets in these dense communities, only an open plaza in the middle - an urban courtyard so to speak. Houses were accessed by rooftops through a system of ladders. This dense collection of thick walled structures helped to keep the inside of buildings cool during the hot day and warm during the cool night. It also served as a wall fortification because it deterred intruders and enemies from breaking into the community. For further protection, the Pueblo located their villages on mesas or flat-table like landforms, showing yet another example of architecture responding to cultural necessity and local environment. One of the most amazing examples of Puebloan architecture is the Pueblo Acoma in New Mexico. It is one of the oldest civilizations in North America, having been continuously occupied by its native people for over 800 years.
Adobe house clusters built by the Pueblo Native tribes which dominated the now Southwestern United States
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History of Architecture IV. - Chinese & Japanese Civilizations
This week we explore the architectural developments of Eastern civilizations.
Diagram that shows the relationships between the early Indian/Buddhist Stupa and what would become the Japanese and Chinese Pagodas.
Although it began to harness agriculture later than Middle Eastern and Meso-American tribes, Chinese culture had developed continuously and largely uninterrupted by western influence for over 4000 years. The first religions in China were carry overs from Indian Buddhism and Hindi. By the 5th century BC the teachings of Confucius and Daoism by the oracle Laotzu were infused into Chinese philosophy. Confucianism taught an ideology that focused on respect for authority and elders as defined by the state and the subjection of common folk to the wisdom of rulers and leaders. This philosophy has dominated the development of Chinese politics throughout its history and has had a direct influence on Chinese architecture and urban planning. By contrast, Daoism, is a mystical philosophy that teaches humans to seek harmony and balance by embracing nature. It's a completely non-rational and non-authoritative train of thought. These philosophies are polar opposites but each has had a profound effect on the built environment.
The Stupa - an Indian invention - influenced the Chinese Pagoda building type, and by proxy the Japanese. The pagoda is essentially the skyscraper version of a stupa. It is distinguished by its vertical tiers of cornices and curved roof & eave lines. Like stupas, pagodas were used as temples and houses for relics but were also used as folly objects in Daoist inspired garden designs. Befittingly, Confucian philosophy comes to light more in city planning and imperial architecture. Chinese cities were laid out on grids within a large square surrounded by a fortification wall. The imperial area of the city was placed at the center and could only be reached by passing through successive massive walled gates which would certainly have a very imposing impression on visitors. Alignment with the cardinal directions (N-S,E-W) was paramount. The largest and most important buildings were aligned on the North-South axis and were framed by the openings of massive gate entrances so that the granduer of these imperial buildings would be the first thing one would see. This method of urban and architectural planning enforced the Confucian ideals of strong hierarchy, submission and subjection. The most famous example of this design thought is the Forbidden City in Beijing, the Chinese capital city.
Looking south from the Imperial Gardens toward the Forbidden City. Notice how the entire complex is organized around a strong major axis and locates all of the larger main buildings. This planning philosophy is a direct motive from Confucian ideals and rigor.
Traditional Japanese civilization began independently, but its culture and architecture is a mix of Japanese, Chinese and Korean ideas. One major distinction is in the religious origins. Japan’s native religion is Shinto, a set of principles that hold in high regard the natural forces that agriculture is dependent on like rain, sun and the moon. It is similar to Daosim and Hindi in this way. Over the centuries this ideology was colored with the teachings in Chinese Buddhism and eventually would alter Japanese architecture. For instance, the Japanese also utilize the pagoda building type and rely heavily on the internal courtyard for residential buildings and imperial palaces. Their are some uniquely Japanese traits though. The roofs of Japanese pagodas tend to be more exaggerated and elongated making the towers seem more horizontal than vertical. Japanese city planning has a more unbalanced and asymmetrical organization than Chinese cities (although symmetry was still a dominant theme) and tends to be smaller in scale. Shinto religious shrines, are more reminiscent of the gable roofed temples of European culture than the Stupas of India. Japanese Shinto shrines and residential buildings show more expressive and elaborate detail in their wood structures than their Chinese counterparts. Peculiar to the Japanese house is its flexible spatial organization which made possible an internal openness of space. This free and flexible method of organizing space is one of the precedents for the modernist design philosophy of the 20th century and had a particularly heavy influence on the American architect, Frank Lloyd Wright.
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History of Architecture III. - Renaissance & Baroque Era
Visual history of Renaissance and Baroque Architecture and the influences of both the Protestant and Counter-Reformation.
Resurrection out of the Medieval Era is marked by the birth of Italian Renaissance, a cultural and artistic movement that swept across the European continent. This movement was not spurred by major revelations and religious movements. It was brought about by the private wealth amassed by Italian merchants and bankers who had a great interest in using the arts as a way to display their wealth. Chief of these was the Medici Familia. Here, we see the first time in history where private wealth has significant influence on architectural development.
The Italian Renaissance marks a return to classical principles of architecture and city planning, previously developed by the Romans and Greeks. It marks the rediscovery of ancient principles, ideas and technology that were lost to Europe for centuries It also makrs the rise of humanism by celebrating rational thought and an observation of the physical world. It was about the 'Enlightenment' of the individual man, turning chaos into rational order. With respect to the built environment, Renaissance design was based on pure forms and proportions - squares, circles, symmetry, balance - in contrast to the seeming chaos of Medieval design. Rational forms were easily understood and were used to help comprehend the proportions of everything from the human body to an entire building. Leonardo di Vinci’s drawing of the Vitruvian Man best depicts this. The Renaissance was also significant in that it was not only used for churches and castles for nobles. It was a style for the “self-made” wealthy class.
The Vitruvian Man by Leonardo di Vinci. Depicts an interpretation of the proportions of common man as defined by ancient architect Vitruvius. This drawing Di Dinci is critical to Renaissance Architecture because it represents a renewed interest in ancient ideals such as natural humanism and simple order..
One of the many three part Palazzi ( or palaces in Italian) that arose out of the Renaissance style and abound in Florence. The typical Palazzo consists of a heavy rusticated base ( Piano Terra), a much more refined second floor (commonly called the Piano Nobile) and a rather plain looking third floor (Piano Terzo). This gave the building a dignified sense of order and legibility.
Families like the Medici of Florence were patrons of the Renaissance Arts and commissioned numerous projects, paintings and sculptures. In fact, the Renaissance was begun here and the best examples of the style can be found in the Tuscan capital. The Duomo of the Florentine Cathedral is considered to be the very first Renaissance building. To this day it is still the largest self-supporting masonry dome in the world Other notable Renaissance designs are the square of Santissima Annunziata and the Medici Place, both in Florence. The Church of Sant'Andrea in Mantua, Italy is famous for its influential facade. The Campidoglio in Rome designed by Michelangelo, is one of the world’s great spaces and the church of S.Maria della Consolazione in Todi, Italy is a perfect example of a Renaissance circular plan church. The most influential building from this period is a miniature circular plan temple called 'Il Tempietto'. This small domed structure would serve as a model for the domes of many great buildings in the future: the U.S. Capitol Building, St.Peter’s Basilica in Rome, St.Paul church in London, and countless others.
The Tempietto, designed by Baroque architect Donato Bramante, is the ancestor to just about every significant domed building that has come after it including the dome of St. Peter's in Rome, St. Paul's in London, and the US Capitol Building.
The Baroque movement immediately followed the Renaissance Movement. Unlike the Renaissance - where its primary supporters and patrons were bankers, merchants, and self-made men - Baroque was developed solely as a propaganda tool for the Catholic Church. The Protestant Reformation, started by Martin Luther, had gained heavy momentum and was a direct threat to the power and influence of the Catholic Church. A counter-reformation movement was begun by the church which called for internal reform and an arts and educational movement with the sole intent of winning people back to Catholicism. The church called this initiative Baroque. The goal was to appeal to the emotions of the faithful through extremely dramatic, elaborate, exaggerated, and theatrical art and architecture.
This created a canon of artistic works that looked more like scenes from a dramatic playwright than a buildings and paintings. Facade fronts seemed to jump out at viewers due to the depth and shadows they created. Instead of circles, ovals and ellipses became the popular forms of choice because the uneven axes increased the grandeur of a space. The use of convex and concave curves was also key in creating the desired emotional effects. Intense paintings of religious scenes were also employed to heighten the effect. The ceilings of churches were adorned with the most elaborate and colorful murals of bible stories and chapels contained carefully crafted stone sculptures of angels and saints with such precise detail that they almost seemed real. What Baroque produced was a physical experience that pulled on the emotions and passions of believers. Whereas the Renaissance was built of rationality, Baroque was built on compelling narratives told through art and architecture. It was - and is - a very beautiful style, but perhaps it stirred up the wrong feelings. Or maybe, it wasn’t as effective as it was designed to be. Whatever the case, institutional movements like the Baroque combined with the tyranny of monarchical governments, spurred revolutions across the world and would set the foundations for a new architecture free of propaganda, ornament, meaning, and institutional monumentality. This style of architecture and city planning would arise to be called, 'Modernism'.
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History of Architecture III. - Early Christian & Medieval Civilizations
A brief visual history of early Christian Architecture, Ottoman and Byzantine Architecture, and Gothic Architecture during the Medieval Period
Before Rome was sacked for the last time the empire had split into two separate dominions: the Western Empire headquartered in Rome and the Eastern Empire in Byzantium (modern day Istanbul, Turkey). The fall of the ancient Roman Empire can be attributed to many causes but the increasing popularity of Christianity was no doubt a major contributing factor. Christianity is a monotheistic religion, where one God exists in three unified ‘persons’: God the Father, God the Son of Man (Jesus Christ), and God the Spirit. In 313 AD Emperor Constantine petitioned for the Roman Empire to become two separate dominions. Byzantium would be the new capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, of which he would be the Emperor. He changed the name of the capital to Constantinople in his honor and declared himself a Christian becoming the first Roman emperor to do so. Constantine’s predecessor declared that Christianity become the state religion of the Eastern Roman, or the Byzantine Empire. The Byzantine Empire would expand to nearly the size of the Ancient Roman Empire and would single handedly spread the Christian religion across Europe, Russia, Near East and Northern Africa.
Portrait of Emperor Constantine. The first Roman ruler to establish Christianity as the state religion.
The basic components of a basilica plan church adapted from its Roman ancestor building.
Christianity became a very processional religion. It became a worship of pageantry, reciting, and choral singing. This new religion and its functions needed an architecture to support it. It needed a spatial model to help spread the "good news" across the known world. The solution to this architectural problem would prove to be one of the most influential and repeated design paradigms in the world, even into the 21st century. Christian followers were persecuted by Romans early on and had to hide worship in private houses. By the time Christianity became the official religion of the Byzantine Empire, there was no official building for Christian worship. To satisfy this need, Byzantine rulers simply used pagan building types from the previous empire and adapted them as the first church buildings. The Roman Basilica was of notable influence. Its tall, long, and flexible floor plan proved to be a perfect match for Christian worship and would become the primary space of the Christian church. This is why the largest Catholic church in the world is called a ‘Basilica’ and not church - St. Peter’s Basilica in Vatican City, Italy. The nave, as it would come to be called, needed a few essential components to make it complete. The apse was added, a semi-circular focal space where the orator and the liturgical chorus would stand, essentially a stage. It was placed at one end of the basilica, or nave, to terminate the procession. Placed parallel to the Basilica, were long but shorter spaces called aisles. They gave access to the viewing areas in the nave. The model for Christian church architecture would receive many nuances and expressions of ornamentation over the next 1500 years. But no matter how varied, these three components, the Nave (Basilica), Apse, and Aisle, would remain essential parts to Christian liturgical spaces and churches. Good examples of early Byzantine christian architecture are Old St. Peter’s Basilica, Aula Palatina commissioned by Constantine himself, and the church of Santa Maria in Trastevere.
The Basilica of Constantine in Trier, Germany.(also called Aula Palatina) built by the Emperor Constantine in 310 AD. It's one of the largest remaining halls from antiquity and a great example of early Christian Church design adapted from a pagan Roman building type. Elements of the basilica are easily seen.
The Basilica of Santa Maria in Trastevere, Italy is one of the oldest basilica churches in Rome dating back to the mid 4th century. I got a chance to photograph and draw the church when I visited Italy. the section I drew shows the church's architectural foundations as a Roman Basilica with the high central nave space and a rounded apse at then end where the altar is located.
Byzantine architecture also produced the circular planned domed church - an idea undoubtedly influenced by the pagan Pantheon in Rome. In floor plan, it's a building essentially comprised of two apses’ pushed together to form a full circle with a dome over its central space. In these churches, the nave (basilica) and the Apse (or altar) share the same space. An additional circular ring wrapped around this main central space serves as the access aisle. Domed circular plan churches allow more attention to be placed on the altar and provide better viewing for all patrons. There were many more traditional basilica churches produced than circular basilicas. But circular domed churches produced some of the world’s greatest buildings and would be the precursor for many future buildings. The church of Santa Costanza (4th century) in Rome is a great example of an early modest circular plan Christian church. But the Hagia Sophia (6th century), in Istanbul is without a doubt one of the most fascinating buildings of any kind and of any period of architecture. For years it was both the largest church in the world and the largest masonry domed building the world. The idea behind this iconic building was to merge the circular basilica plan with the rectangular basilica plan creating an ideal worship space. Now a museum, Hagia Sophia is rich in cultural history as the grandeur of its space has played host to a Christian church, a catholic church, and a Islamic Mosque.
Interior Nave of the Church Santa Costanza in Rome. It's one of the earliest examples of a circular plan church dating back to 4th century AD. Photo by: Marques King
Hagia Sophia in Constantinople (Now Istanbul) is the largest circular plan church ever built. Located in an active earthquake zone, engineers still wonder how people of the day were able to build such a structure.It was built in the 6th Century and is the crown jewel of Byzantine/Eastern Orthodox Christian Architecture.
The basic components of Gothic Architecture and the Gothic Cathedral. Pointed Arches, Flying Buttresses and Ribbed (Fan) Vaults were the main components that allowed for tall and light looking structures.
Europe after the fall of Rome, would experience the Middle or Dark Ages. The Medieval period represents a time where vast amounts of knowledge, technology and history were lost. This dark period would continue until the Moors and other African/Arabian empires would reintroduce these ideas back into the continent. But there were still a few major architectural developments that happened during this period. The Romanesque architectural style flourished in many independent Italian States that came to power. Romanesque architecture is defined by the excessive use of the stone arch in both the interior and the exterior of religious buildings and palaces. However, the most significant architectural development during this time was the Gothic Architectural Style. Churches were traditionally very solid, opaque and heavy looking. Developed first in France, Gothic churches were more structurally efficient and expressive. This allowed churches to be taller and contain unprecedented amounts of glass, producing magnificent interior spaces. These feats were made possible by three key components: pointed arches, fan vaults, and flying buttresses. The soaring arches and vaults were self supporting, marking some of the first instances where the structure and veneer (or skin) of a building could be independent of each other. However, the arches and vaults produced very strong outward thrust forces. If not controlled they could cause these massive structures to collapse. To hold the nave and the rest of the church together, flying buttresses were attached to the exterior. They provided strong oppositional forces to counter the arches outward thrust. Gothic architecture seems to have been influenced by Islamic architecture and Mosque design. This can be debated. What is fact is that the developments of Gothic architecture are the very early foundations for what would become 'Modern Architecture'.
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History of Architecture II. - Persian & Early Islamic Civilizations
A brief history of Persian and Islamic Architectural influences.
Pre-Islamic Persia (Present Day Iran) grew to be a great empire at various times roughly from 700 BC- 700 AD. Their success as one of the first great empires is attributed to a vanguard religion and ideas of tolerance & inclusion. The Ancient Persian religion is one of the world’s oldest and the first to introduce the concepts right and wrong dualism, monotheism, and divine trinity concepts present in today's religions. This belief system was developed by continually merging the beliefs of conquered peoples and was the best way to calm tensions from these newly integrated cultures. Architecture in the early Persian era was focused on creating massive palaces, temples, and mausoleums inside fortified cities.
The ruins of the ancient Persian Capital of Persepolis, a massive and expansive structure of freestanding columns. With regards to architecture, the ancient Persians where masters of construction. Their focus was on appearance and ornament. One can assume that this mode of thinking would set the tone for future civilizations that would develop in the area, mainly in the Arab world.
An artist's rendering of what Persepolis might have looked like. Note the ornement at the tops of the columns and the eastern-asian influences in the manners the support beams rest on them.
A key trait of these buildings were massively sized columns that were very ornate with carved animal reliefs and narratives of the Persian “ultimate god”. The best example we have of early Persian architecture are the ruins of the cities of Persepolis and Susa.
Islam was founded as a religion in Mecca on the Arabian Peninsula in present day Saudi Arabia. This monotheistic religion was first worshiped by small nomadic tribes but quickly grew, spreading across the known world. The Islamic Golden Age coincides with the Dark or Middle Ages - a period when Europe experienced a complete deterioration of historical records, culture, technology, knowledge and science after the Fall of Rome. During the European Medieval Period, Islamic empires - like the Moor, Mali, Ghanian, and Songhai in Africa and the Ottomans in Turkey - thrived, rising to tremendous power and experienced an important phase of scientific and cultural enlightenment.
The Islamic Empire of the Moors eventually expanded to control all of Northern Africa, Portugal, Spain, and parts of the southern Italian islands. The Moors birthed to the world the first modern surgeons, the practice of modern paper-making, and the ideas of public schools & libraries. The most notable cultural development during the Islamic Golden Age was the rapid advancements in mathematics, first begun by the Greeks. The Moors created modern algebra and trigonometry which fueled the creation of complex geometric forms. These new complex geometries are omnipresent in the architecture of the Islamic World. The knowledge of advanced mathematics was the foundation for it all. The Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem, the Great Mosque-Cathedral in Cordoba, Spain, and the Alhambra in Granada, Spain are three structures that accurately show of the complexity of Islamic Architecture. It can be argued that Islamic Architecture best represents the marriage between cultural development and architectural expression. Had it not been for these advancements in mathematics and geometry, the beautiful buildings and spaces of the Islamic world would not have been possible.
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History of Architecture II. - Greek & Roman Civilizations
A visual history of Greek and Roman architecture and culture.
The Grecian and Hellenic civilizations developed a society that combined mythology with reason and politics. Their ethics were based on these new ideas of citizenship and the rule of the people. They believed all 'citizens' had the right to contribute to civic life and polity. To support these ideas, the Greeks created new forms in architecture and urban planning. The idea of public space is rooted in Grecian planning. The Agora, was a large public open area usually located in the center of town. Surrounding this large area were long shed-like colonnaded public buildings called Stoas. This organization of building and space for public use is the predecessor to the marketplaces and plazas seen in many cultures today. The Agora was essential to Greek life because it supported the free exchange of ideas, commerce, and information - a key Greecian trait of free, democratic and republican societies. In addition to laying the foundation for modern urban planning, the Greeks also developed what we classify as Classical Architecture. These ideals were displayed mostly in temples.
The Romans adopted and advanced Greek principles of government, mythology, and architecture. But as Rome morphed into an empire, Roman ideals identified more with power and conquering than republican governance and religious traditions. The Roman Empire was known for its great conquests and at its height was the largest empire the world had ever known. These conquests were possible because of Rome’s vast army and unprecedented engineering ability. Romans refined many Greek inventions: the Greek hillside Amphitheatre became the Roman Colosseum; The Greek Agora became the Roman Forum; The Stoa became the Basilica. Temples were positioned more symmetrical in relation to the spaces adjacent to them. The Romans incorporated these essential components into a military colonization and community model called the Castrum. Each time a territory was conquered, Romans would found a colony using the Castrum urban design model. These Castrums were the foundations for some of the world's greatest cities: Barcelona, London, Como, Florence, Madrid, etc. Today, Roman Castrums are the basis for good urban design and neighborhood making because there dimensions allow for daily needs to be reached within a ½ mile walking distance from the center (a ten minute walk).
In addition to urban planning, Romans contributed to architecture immensely. Romans invented modern concrete, a building technology at the core of their engineering power. They also perfected the arch, an invention of ancient Mesopotamia. The arched allowed the Romans to create such forms as the barrel vault and the self-supporting dome. These new architectural ideas were structurally more efficient because they could carry large loads using less material. Arches, domes and vaults are everywhere Roman Architecture. Arches can be seen most notably in Aqueducts - bridges that carried water from hilltop areas to public baths, wells, drinking fountains in cities as well as flushing sewer systems. One of the most famous domed buildings in the world, the Pantheon, is a proud achievement of Roman architectural technology. Today, it is still the world's largest unreinforced concrete dome and has been used as the paradigm for hundreds of subsequent buildings. The world had not seen structures such as the ones built by the Romans. Their engineering might struck fear into their adversaries and intimidated their enemies. Their architecture was an imposing physical force representative of a conquering culture rather than one of mythology and religion.
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History of Architecture II. - Mesopotamia/Egyptian Civilizations
A brief architectural history on some of the oldest organized civilizations in the world: Mesopotamian and Egyptian societies
Agriculture single handedly transformed the way humans lived. Communities began to form on every continent and were completely centered around the harvest. These early civilizations eventually grew into cities and then into nations. Now that humans were able to exist in a stationary state, they could devote more time and energy to matters of the mind rather than satisfying basic human needs like finding food and shelter. We naturally became curious of our existence and began ask investigative questions about our surroundings. Together with a new social way of living this mental state of being would fuel a cultural explosion over the centuries birthing religion, philosophy, science, politics & government, and art. And just as it always has, these cultural expressions and technological advancements would need an architecture to represent them. As human society began to develop and flourish, its most prized possessions would be its buildings and structures serving as billboards for civilizations - a trend that continues to this day. This connection between buildings and culture would produce various architectural styles and interpretations over time. Architecture was and still is the most influential tangible representation of a civilization. Architecture is history.
Ancient MesopOtamia/Egyptian Civilizations
Ancient Mesopotamian civilizations, like the Sumerians, Babylonians, Chaldeans, and Egyptians were some of the first to harness the true potential of agriculture to build economic wealth. Located in fertile lands along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers (present day Iraq) and the Nile River Valley, they constructed great cities with complex cultures to support them. The first religions came from these cultures. They were polytheistic belief systems that reflected a dependence on the harvest and a reverence for celestial astronomy. Mesopotamian mythology, now extinct, is considered by most researchers to be the oldest recorded religion and the predecessor to ancient Greek Mythology.
Aside from raw and unshaped stone, clay brick is one of the oldest modular buildng materials utilized by humans.
Engraveed stone relief of the Mesopatamian moon god, Sin (Nanna). There are connections between Nanna and the development of Islam.
These cultural ideas were expressed in the architecture. The Ziggurat is Mesopotamia's most significant contribution to architectural development. They were large pyramid like structures used as temples dedicated to the deities of their day. Like many structures of the time, the primary building material was sun-dried brick made from mud and bitchumen. Their basic form mimics a stepped pattern that retreats as you move upward. This form naturally evolved into something more refined and processional. The most notable of these buildings was the Ziggurat of Ur (2030 BC), built by King Ur and dedicated to the moon god Sin (Nanna), patron deity of the city of Ur. Ziggurats were the centerpieces to walled temple complexes and fortified cities dominating all other buildings surrounding them. The crown jewel of the city-state, ziggurats were symbols of power, bravado, and wealth to neighboring communities.
Ziggurat of Ur - Predessor to the Pyramid - photograghed when the structure was re-discovered in the late 19th century.
Ziggurat of Ur - Predessor to the Pyramid - photograghed in its current condition. Many parts have been rebuilt..
Along the Nile, Egyptians developed their own culture and a similar polytheistic religion built on concepts like the ‘afterlife’, burial, astronomy, divine right rulership, and early sciences such as mathematics and engineering. Both developments played a key role in Egyptian Architecture. In the early dynasties, Egyptians also built ziggurat-like structures called Mastabas. Mastabas were simple mud brick mounds that were first used as burial tombs for Pharaohs but quickly developed into vast temple complexes dedicated to both kings and gods. Their locations were often tied to the paths of the moon and sun and were crafted with careful geometry. The Egyptians refined the Mastaba form over time and through many failures. Eventually they produced its most notable architectural achievement: the pyramid - A four sided temple and burial tomb for Egyptian Pharaohs that converges at its peak. By the time the Pyramid arrived the jump had been made from perishable mud bricks to much more durable stone. This would have been a much worthier material for a structure honoring pharaoh-deities and gods of the harvest and sky. Commissioned by pharaohs, envisioned by Egyptian architects and built by both skilled craftsmen and slaves, these structures were massive and required great sophistication to build. The Great Pyramid of Giza, designed by architect (or polymath) Imhotep. is a fantastic example of the pyramid form at its peak. In comparing this structure to earlier mastabas and the ziggurat, one can easily see the progression of the pyramid idea.
The obelisk is also an Egyptian architectural creation that was used at the entrance of temples and palaces. It was a physical symbol of the Egyptian sun god Ra, and by no mistake, it was also used as a time keeping device. Obelisks have been adopted by many other civilizations like the Greeks, Romans, and Americans. The Washington Monument in the District of Columbia is a direct replica of an ancient Egyptian obelisk.
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History of Architecture I.
As soon as humans began to master agriculture, civilization began to flourish. Their architecture wasn't too far behind.
Since architecture became a “thing”, it has always been intimately connected to the cultural values of human society. Architecture in its most basic form has a very simple purpose - to provide shelter for human beings and their activities. The first close ancestors of humans originated almost 2 million years ago as African hunter-gatherer groups that eventually spread across the Middle Eastern, Asian, and European continents. They mastered stone tools, developed fire, and used fire for cooking. These are all key cultural traits that separate the human lineage from primates. A small portion of these early peoples lived in or performed ceremonies in caves which can be considered the earliest forms of architecture. The walls of these caves clearly show influence of early human culture and technology in the form of pictorial paintings and stone carvings. More recent ancestors and the first homo sapiens showed up in east Africa around 600,000 to 200,000 years ago and spread all over the world reaching the North American continent around 20,000 years ago. Caves to these peoples were more ceremonial spaces than spaces for shelter and were also used to develop early forms of linguistics. Instead they lived in temporary structures, like tents and huts, made of natural materials, which reflected their nomadic lifestyles. Architecture at this point had become both an adaptive manipulation of natural landforms and a “man-made” fabrication necessitated by the maturation of human culture and lifestyle. The relationship between architecture and culture is founded here and would continue to develop this way throughout history.
Architecture and city-like civilizations as we have come to know it, can trace its beginnings back to arguably the most significant human cultural achievement - agriculture. Agriculture and the domestication of animals, gave humans a reason and the ability to survive in one place. Instead of chasing food, we could now raise and grow our own. Replacing this nomadic lifestyle with a more stationary one required a new and more permanent form of architecture. It required an architecture that would support the agricultural movement, its technology and the cultural development that would follow. This is the birth of modern civilization.
Agriculture (10,000 BC) and animal domestication (13,000 BC) fueled the Neolithic Period (10,000 BC - 3,000BC; also called the agricultural revolution). Some of the first crops cultivated were wheat, chickpeas, lentils, peas and rice and the first animals domesticated were pigs, sheep, and cattle. The Agricultural Revolution began at different times and in different places, but some of these first evidences of agriculture can be found in the Levant and Fertile Crescent Areas - two regions focused around the eastern Mediterranean Sea and extending west along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. This region includes the contemporary countries of Lebanon, Syria, Israel, Iraq, Turkey, Greece, Northern Egypt and portions of Iran, Libya, and Saudi Arabia. Not coincidentally, this region is also known as the ‘cradle of civilization’ and where the first permanent human settlements start to pop-up. The oldest known cities are the City of Jericho (9000 BC) in modern day Israel and Catalhuyuk (7500 BC) in modern day Turkey which is currently a live archaeological site.
Agriculture single handedly transformed the way humans lived. Communities began to form on every continent, and were completely centered around the harvest: from food, to religion, to currency. These early civilizations eventually grew into cities, then into nations and then into empires. Now that humans were able to exist in a stationary state, they could devote more of their time and energy to matters of the mind rather than struggling to satisfy basic human needs like finding food and shelter. Humans naturally became curious of their existence and began ask investigative questions about their surroundings. Together with a new social way of living, this mental state of being would fuel a cultural explosion over the centuries birthing religion, philosophy, science, politics & government, and art. And just as it always has, these cultural expressions and technological advancements would need an architecture to represent them. As human society began to develop and flourish, its most and prized possessions would be its buildings and structures serving as billboards for civilization, a trend that continues to this day. This connection between buildings and culture would produce various architectural styles and interpretations over time. Architecture was and still is the most influential tangible representation of a civilization. Architecture is history.
The Great Pyramid of Giza in Luxor.
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Detroit is the New Rome
Had it not been for these two empires, the world would certainly look different. Rome, over the centuries always managed to realize the value in its ancient, yet, abandoned structures. Now the city is reaping the benefits of history and longevity. Detroit, poised to be America’s version of the “Eternal City”, now sits at a critical pivot point in its history. Will it make decisions in response to economic urgency? Or will it make decisions of historical sustainability that yield innumerable dividends in the long run? I hope the latter, holds true; for there is no town, like Motown.
Picture in your mind, a small town nestled near the banks of a river. Now imagine that same town transforming into a great city. And not just any great city, but the greatest of cities; an empire. This city would be home to millions of proud citizens. It would be a global epicenter of technology, manufacturing innovation, creativity and of course wealth. People would flock from all over the world to see this great city, marveling at its prowess and seeking opportunity. As you’d expect, this city would be beautiful. Top notch. Handsomely designed buildings, lush greenery, manicured parks, and imposing monuments that signified civic power. It just so happens that this city would also pioneer various modes of transporting people and goods, and build many roads to connect to far off places. This city would go on to change the course of history forever. Yes, it would be a great city. Not just any great city, but the greatest of cities.
Sadly this city would fall. The millions of people that once lived in this great city would flee for various reasons. Its power would be conquered by forces from faraway lands. This once great city would deteriorate in every way possible. Its wealth would be stripped away. This city would be decimated.
Due to heavy media coverage recently, if I asked you what city I might be talking about, I’m sure 90% of you would say Detroit. Technically, you would not be wrong. But what if I told you a more correct answer would be one of the world’s greatest, beloved, and prestigious cities? It’s a city we now know to be eternal. Excluding cities that have been completely destroyed through efforts of war, the only other city that can match the magnitude of Detroit’s economic, social, and physical demise would be the city of Rome. The narratives of these two places are incredibly similar. Both amassed great power and international acclaim at their prime, and both dwindled into feeble versions of their former glory. The only difference is that Rome has recovered, on numerous occasions.
The Eternal City has endured through time, and all its devices, to become the city of over 3 million that we know today. It attracts millions more from across the globe, and is rich in culture, history, mystery, and timelessness. I believe an integral part to Rome’s longevity and its contemporary prominence has been its ability to retain and adapt its timeless urban fabric through the centuries. These are the structures, systems, and buildings that distinguish Rome from any other place in the world. They help tell its story, one that begins almost three thousand years ago. Detroit could one day become what its ancient predecessor has, rising from the proverbial and literal ashes to achieve world prominence once again. But just like Rome did, it must first realize the irreplaceable value in its unique ruins and monuments; urban structures and systems that are distinctively Detroit.
Governor Augustus B. Woodward was the mastermind behind Downtown Detroit's distinctive radial plan, when he attempted to implement a city grid heavily influenced by Washington, D.C. in 1805. Only one of the radials was actually laid out and it was done so unfinished - Grand Circus Park. Nonetheless, Woodward's plan became a unique part of Detroit's history as the city began to grow. Starting in the 1950's, Detroit's central core (as well as the rest of the city) began to dwindle by way of numerous demolitions, implementation of state and federal highways, and other public works. In my opinion this shows a community with little regard for the irreplaceable value of local and global history and the erroneous infatuation with new, yet, temporary trends. The degradation of Detroit's core is a summary to what has happened to the city as a whole.
In truth Rome's past is a very complex one. The city has gone through various periods of expansion and contraction over the centuries. It has been ruled by many different peoples and has worshiped under many religions. The one constant however seems to be a reverence for grandeur and history, no matter who or what the social order was. Even when Rome was burned or sacked or pillaged, conquering tribes spared many historical relics such as the Collosuem and the Pantheon. Rome's recent growth and level of stability can be accredited to the unification of various dominions into the Republic of Italy in the mid-19th century. Even in the unification of Italy, this high esteem for Rome's ancient and local history continued. Now, as an ancient city in the modern age, Rome is host to probably thousands of ruins and relics that can not be duplicated in value nor in stature. Some have been made into museums. Some are still in the private possession of the families that built them. Some are public spaces and parks. Some are used today exactly how they've always been used. Function is almost irrelevant. What matters is that a function was found so that these historical urban treasures could still exist today for all to enjoy and learn from.
So, could Detroit be the new Rome? Very few American cities, if any, can match the amount as well as the significance of contextually specific and globally important structures that lie in ruin like many European cities can. But Detroit has the potential to do so. However, it can only do so if it realizes the wealth of culturally and globally historic treasures it already has. Treasures that testify to the amazing things that happened here and only here. These urban gems exist in the forms of abandoned train depots, ruined automobile plants, lop-sided mansions, eerie turn-of-the-century skyscrapers, isolated schools, and factories of all sorts. These are the only physical reminders we have left of what Detroit once was. They are imperative to the sustainability of the city’s culture and the perpetuity of its narrative.
Had it not been for these two empires, the world would certainly look different. Rome, over its many centuries and rulers always managed to realize that there was value in its ancient, yet, abandoned structures. Now the city is reaping the benefits of history and longevity. Detroit, poised to be America’s version of the “Eternal City”, now sits at a critical pivot point in its history. Will it make decisions in response to economic optics, pummeling everything in its path? Or will it incorporate these historically relevant places into its new development to yield innumerable dividends in the long term? I hope the latter holds true; for there is no town, like Motown.
RUINS OF ROME
Ruins of DETROIT
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Building Better, More Sustainable Lifestyles: The Story of Fabric[K] Design
The condition of the Detroit neighborhood is also the condition of the American neighborhood. The solution is complex and multifaceted. But I believe it has much to do with the design of the built environment and the relationship - or lack there of - that people have to that environment. This is the genesis of Fabric[K] Design.
Why I Started Fabric[K] Design
People in other countries live more sustainable lifestyles than we Americans do. We may have the most ‘freedoms’, the largest military, the largest GDP, and the most stable social order. But on a fundamental level, people from other countries live their lives more sustainably. They have a more intimate relationship with their natural and built environments. On average, people from certain places in Europe, Asia, India and Africa walk and bike more, helping to keep them physically fit and less obese by simply doing daily tasks. Places near the Mediterranean have better diets because they primarialy shop at produce markets, grow their own food without chemicals (although this is changing sadly), cook more, and know exactly where their food comes from. As a result, they have significantly lower cases of chronic heart conditions, cancers, and other so-called "Western Diseases". They live closer together and closer to where they work, play, and relax which gives them more time to be social, spend time with family, and be more efficient with daily tasks. Yes, we in the U.S. have more money in the bank. But these other populations have better, more sustainable and healthier lifestyles.
I’ve had the good fortune to do a bit traveling in my 30 years of life - Europe, China, Africa - and I've seen these differences first hand. American neighborhoods used to be like this. In fact I remember them vaguely as a kid growing up in Detroit. I remember playing basketball, curb-ball, or catch in the streets of my grandmother’s neighborhood on the Westside of Detroit. I remember running down the sidewalk trying to flag down the Ice Cream truck. I remember my neighborhood friends and I, racing our bikes home from the park to get there before there before the street light curfew went into effect. I remember walking a block to the corner market, to pick up some final ingredients for dinner. I remember helping my grandmother harvest her vegetables and fruits in the backyard garden. I remember evenings hanging out on the stoop with my friends after dinner. In summers, we’d stay there cracking jokes until it was time for bed. I remember the old folks in my neighborhood knowing my name as I strolled through the streets. They always looked out for me, because they knew I was Beulah’s little grandson. Sound familiar? I’m sure many of you could tell some version of this same story.
A few years ago, in the midst of my travels, I recalled these memories as I evaluated how these other cultures lived, and I compared that to the current condition of Detroit Neighborhoods and I thought to myself, “What the heck happened?” The condition of Detroit neighborhoods is actually the condition of the American neighborhood. The answer is complex and multifaceted. But I believe it has much to do with the design of the built environment and the relationship people have to that environment. This is the genesis of Fabric[K] Design.
What is Fabric[K] Design?
My name is Marques King. I was born in Detroit, Michigan. Not Metro-Detroit. Not Southeastern Michigan. The D. I left Detroit in 2012 because there were zero jobs for newly graduated architecture students. I left for Washington DC determined to learn the things I couldn't had I stayed. It was the best decision of my life. I got a masters, became licensed, became an urban designer, traveled, worked, learned languages. I lived. And now I want to bring all of those experiences, expertise, and skill back to the town that made me who I am today. Fabric[K] Design is my way of doing that. Fabric[K] Design is an architectural and urban design consultancy firm located in Detroit, Michigan. Our vision? To help people live better, and more sustainable lifestyles similar to the one’s I just described above. Our mission is to pursue this vision through contextual, sustainable and people centric design principles. In short our thesis is that neighborhood life in Detroit and in America for that matter, is broken. We want to weave it back together.
What You Can Expect From Fabric[K] Design
You can expect us to provide quality architectural design and consultantcy services for a whole range of residential and light-commercial buildings as well as neighborhood urban planning. And if you can’t tell from the stories I just told, we like to focus on neighborhoods. To learn more about us, visit our website. There you can find our complete narrative, sign up for our quarterly newsletter, view some of our projects, and learn more about the products and services we’ll be offering in the near future. Over the next few months we will be rolling out a lot of content via. website, video, blog, and social media. So be sure to follow us and all our participating platforms. We will also be slowly rolling out each one of our products and services one at a time. We’re doing this to make sure each is well calibrated and provides the exact value that it should. I would like to make a note here. At Fabric[K] we realize that architectural services can be confusing, extremely expensive, and ambiguous (check out my blog on how architects can improve). Staying true to our goal of being a people-centric company, we are working on providing pricing models that make design services more clear and accessible to you our future clients, customers and neighbors. We believe the easier we make this process for you, the better experience you’ll have and the more you’ll enjoy embarking on this journey to live a better, more sustainable lifestyle. We look forward to serving you and the citizens of Detroit’s neighborhoods. Thanks for hanging with Fabric[K], the company that holds it all together.
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